Law Essay

Administrative Action Are grounds of judicial review so poorly defined that they enable the courts to pick and choose the cases in which they will grant judicial review? Should that be the case? Introduction Substantive Grounds of Review: Unreasonableness Unreasonableness as a ground of review is difficult to define with any clarity or certainty and as a direst result has often been branded as a problem ridden aspect of administrative law.The concept of Wednesday unreasonableness, formulated in the case of Associated Provincial Picture Houses v. Wednesbury Corporation [1948] and further developed in Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service [1985] per Lord Diplock was that courts would intervene to correct an administrative action based on the ground of reasonableness only if it was â€Å"so outrageous in its defiance of logic or accepted moral standards that no sensible person who had applied his mind to the question to be decided could have arrived at it. I ndeterminacy as to the definition of Unreasonableness: Poorly defined grounds of review? The concept of unreasonableness as propagated by Lord Greene and adopted by Australian courts is inherently indeterminate. Whether a particular decision is reasonable or not is often nothing more than a question of degree and opinion by the courts. This creates an overt sense of arbitrariness which then calls into question the consistency and subsequently effectiveness of such a ground of review as illustrated by case law.The effectiveness of unreasonableness as a ground of review was blatantly called into question in the case of Chan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs where the High Court and the Federal Court differed in opinion as to what constituted unreasonableness which was manifestly unfair. This apparent inability of the courts to reach a consensus on what precisely constitutes the required degree of unreasonableness in order to allow a reversal of the disputed administrative decision calls into question the consistency with which it can be applied by courts.Although subsequent cases (Prasad v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs/ Luu v Renevier/ Minister for Aboriginal Affairs v Peko-Wallsend) seemed to prefer an expansive interpretation of unreasonableness, in neither of these cases can it be said that the delegate’s decision represented something that was manifestly unfair or overwhelming as required by Lord Greene’s original version. Conversely, it can be argued that the Federal Court simply reviewed the merits of the case and substituted its decision for that of the original one.In these cases although it was difficult to reach the conclusion that the decision was so unreasonable that no reasonable person would have come to them, that is exactly what the courts did. This further prompts arguments that the ground of unreasonableness is so poorly defined that courts can pick and choose the cases in which they grant judicial review . The wider the interpretation of unreasonableness greater the risk that courts are in essence given greater opportunity to conduct a merits based review with the effect being that judicial review becomes less effective as it loses the element of consistency.In light of this realization, this ground has recently come under close scrutiny by both the judiciary and the legislature. Where unreasonableness does exist as a ground of review, both the High Court and the Federal Court have held unequivocally that it must be strictly construed and that the courts must abstain from using unreasonableness as a guise to hear an appeal and so engage in merits review of a case.In the cases of Minister of immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Eshetu and Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Betkhoshabeh, the Court established strict constraints for unreasonableness, insisting that it is only to be used in the most extreme of cases and that the review should only extend to the legality of the decision. These cases clearly mark a turnaround from the earlier approach in Prasad. In essence his ground of review has been narrowed so that it is to be used only where there is unreasonableness in the very strict sense of the word such that courts can only intervene where only one possible conclusion could have been reached by the decision maker but was not so reached. Therefore precisely defining this ground of review is impossible due to conflicting needs to reign in unreasonableness as a ground of review as opposed to limiting its scope excessively.Proponents of the restrictive approach advocated in Eshetu would argue that a wider interpretation and application of unreasonableness may eventuate in judicial review extending to the merits of a case and possibly usurping the administrative process. However to restrict unreasonableness as a ground of review to that extent runs the risk of marginalizing this ground to the effect of making it redundant. This then gives birth to the possibility that occasions where judicial review was warranted due to the oppressive nature of administrative decisions would go unchecked.There must be a ground of review that can capture decisions such as that in Chan that would otherwise escape scrutiny. Moreover the arguments for and against a restrictive approach to interpreting unreasonableness do not of themselves remove other elements of unreasonableness as a ground of review that are poorly defined. The requirements for something overwhelming or for the evidence to support only one possible conclusion are no more determinate than those of the concept of reasonableness itself.There still exists the need for courts to engage in an evaluative, value laden inquiry as to the reasonableness (or the extent thereof) of a decision and this necessarily involves delving into the merits of a decision rather than its legality. The test of whether a decision is reasonable then hinges upon whether the evidence has been considered wit h propriety and reasonably and it is precisely this which makes the test one of poor definition.In determining whether the available evidence was reasonably interpreted, even considering the more recent restrictive approach propagated by courts, the courts are essentially disagreeing with the decision under review on an indeterminate ground. The danger of illegitimate judicial incursion into the merits of the decision remains present despite its strict construction. Violating the Distinction between merits and judicial review: Poorly defined grounds of review?Although courts can justify judicial review on the basis of Wednesbury unreasonableness, this justification is limited in that the courts cannot intervene simply because they do not agree with the administrative decision or view the facts differently. The distinction between judicial and merits review requires that courts only concern themselves with the question of whether the decision maker had acted within the confines of hi s power subject to the issues of relevancy, proprietary of purpose and unreasonableness.In no way must they concern themselves with the appropriateness of nor the policy considerations behind the decision in a bid to influence or criticize the policy. To do so would amount to a merits review and this would be contrary to the rule that the final authority on the merits of a decision should be the body vested with the discretionary power to do so by Parliament.The theory behind this is that although Courts have the constitutional authority to review decisions of the other arms of government, there is an ever present danger that they might extrapolate this duty excessively and effectively exercise the power vested by Parliament in the primary decision maker, hence substituting their decision for that of the intended decision maker. This would amount to a radical breach of the doctrine of Separation of Powers due to the courts’ exercise of a â€Å"surrogate political processâ₠¬  in direct and conflictual contravention of the notion of Parliamentary sovereignty.The aggregate effect would be a decay of our established system of parliamentary democracy as the courts are neither democratically elected nor politically accountable. The credibility and legitimacy of both the judiciary (and judicial review) and the Constitutional guarantee against excesses by any arm of the Government would be impaired should such a development occur. However the problems surface when there is attempt to apply the theory to practice. Judicial review, despite the grounds on which it is justified, ecessarily involves a process that is evaluative, with emphasis on examining the merits of a decision. When this is compounded by the fact that a conferral of discretionary powers are done so in language that often lacks clarity and is open-ended, it is not too remote to state that courts, in their attempt to evaluate the reasonableness of a decision, will have to embark upon the path o f a value-laden judgment about whether there was a breach of the confines of the discretionary power.This inherent problem within grounds of review is particularly exacerbated in the case of Wednesbury unreasonableness because, although the enacting statue would include the requirement of reasonableness, it will inconveniently leave out the definition of reasonableness, hence creating more room for an evaluative process by the courts. This then amounts to a process of pitting a contested decision against an ideal standard of reasonableness, a standard which has to be construed by the courts.It is then no surprise that the result is often an opaque and loose standard which tends to veer towards the substantive elements of a decision rather than the procedural elements. The fundamental problem of Wednesbury unreasonableness as a ground of judicial review is that the trigger for raising this ground is the disputed quality of the administrative decision. Hence what this amounts to is an intervention by the courts in lieu of the merits of the decision, hence blurring the distinction between legality and merit.When courts attempt to evaluate the legality of administrative action on the murky grounds of unreasonableness, they risk justifying a merits review as judicial review and hence risk an intervention based on their construction of unreasonableness and not based on the legality of the decision in question. Procedural Grounds of review: Bias Bias is a failure to have an open mind on the issues. Actual bias, a closed mind, may lead to other reviewable errors but exists as a separate ground of review.Bias as a ground of review also looks at the perceptions and a decision may be set aside for a perception of bias, whether there was any or not. The test is whether a fair minded lay observer would perceive a possibility of bias. This portion of the essay deals with judges continuing to act in a decision making process when they have an interest in the outcome of the c ase. A judge with a financial interest in a decision is not automatically barred from hearing the case and is only barred if the interest was such as to create a perception of bias [Ebner v Official Trustee in Bankruptcy (2000)]The distinction between actual bias and an apprehension of bias is that for the latter there needs to be no issue of whether the judicial officer might or did in fact bring an impartial mind to the resolution of that case. All that is required is that he might or might have brought an impartial mind to the resolution of the case. The High re-defined the apprehension of bias principle in Ebner v Official Trustee in Bankruptcy (2000) such that the governing principle now is that a judge is disqualified if a fair minded lay observer might reasonably apprehend that the judge might not bring an impartial mind to resolving the case at hand.The principle may also need to be modified in the case of some administrative decision makers, to recognize and accommodate the different legal framework within which administrative decisions are made. Indeed, in Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Jia, the High Court made it clear that the application of the Ebner principles will depend on the circumstances of the case at hand. Judicial officers, by virtue of their public duty do not lose their rights as citizens to engage in a private life and participate in all that a private life necessarily entails.Therefore to assert that there will be conflicts of interest between the public duty and private life of judicial officers seems to be an otiose argument. Any argument that this conflict of interest could result in bias, hence forming a ground for review must then be contemplated with skepticism. Interest The prominence of financial diversity, prevalent interest in shareholding, necessity of investing in superannuation and its related equity funds all result in a significant number of judicial officers, like their counterparts in other profe ssions to have an interest in publicly listed companies.These publicly listed companies are not only the dominant incumbents of their industries but also, as a result of their expansive service production, likely to be involved in litigation periodically. Therefore there is potential scope for litigants to argue that there should be judicial review of a decision made on the basis of an apprehension of bias because of the pecuniary interest of the judge in the case. However, the resolution of most cases involving large companies is unlikely to be significant in affecting the value of a shareholding.Hence shareholdings in large companies will not be disqualifying factors in most proceedings. The proportion of the shares held to the value of the company as an aggregate is likely to be insignificant such as to warrant an intervention on this account. Association There is no clear touchstone that can provide an easy method of identifying what might be a disqualifying association and this could provoke arguments that this ground of review is poorly defined and arbitrary. Obviously a judicial officer cannot preside in a case in which he or she is a party; or in which a close relative is party.On the other hand, the judicial and planning appeal systems would be unworkable if a member was disqualified simply because they knew a party, let alone a representative of a party. The High Court has stated that a reasonable apprehension of bias may exist where the presiding judge has a substantial personal relationship with a party to, or a person involved in, proceedings or a substantial personal relationship with a member of the family of that party or person. However what constitutes a substantial personal relationship may, in practice, be elusive.Much depends on the nature, duration and closeness of the relationship. The High Court decision in Bienstein v Bienstein, which established the general principle that a judge is not disqualified from hearing a matter simply becaus e, when a barrister, he or she has appeared for a party in the past. The recent decision of the House of Lords in Gillies v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions is illustrative that, in the case of an expert tribunal or court, a relationship with the agency whose decision was under review might not be a disqualifying factor.The House of Lords considered that a fair minded observer, who had considered the facts properly, would appreciate that professional detachment and the ability to exercise an independent judgment lay at the heart of such decisions. No-one is immune from a complaint of apprehended bias. Judges cannot be expected to be value-free. Conduct Sometimes the conduct of a judicial officer may be such that a reasonable person may apprehend that the matter might not be decided impartially.But this does not mean that a judicial officer cannot have an opinion about the general reliability of a witness who regularly appears before a court or tribunal; provided that the off icer is open to persuasion and does not make comment indicating prejudgment. It must be stressed that the expression of tentative views, designed to elicit relevant submissions, does not constitute bias nor create a reasonable apprehension of bias. Indeed, this practice actually enhances procedural fairness by alerting the parties to the thoughts of the tribunal and providing them with an opportunity to persuade the tribunal to adopt a different course.Demands to disclose interests or associations When should a judicial officer respond to questions about their interests or associations? There are different schools of thought as to the appropriate practice to adopt when a judicial officer is asked about his or her interests or associations. My view is that, within reason, it is better to answer specific questions in relation to factual matters in order to put minds at rest; or, if minds are not put to rest, to require the parties to confront the potentially disqualifying interest or association and identify the logical connection this may have with a partial adjudication.However a judicial officer should not feel compelled to identify and disclose all possible interests and associations, direct and indirect, whether or not relevant to the case at hand. And there is certainly no obligation to answer questions about opinions, values or attitudes. Effect of non-disclosure of non-disqualifying interest What happens if a judicial officer does not disclose an interest or association which might have been disclosed as a matter of prudence (on the asis that it was potentially disqualifying), but, when revealed, was not ultimately found to be a disqualifying interest or association? In Ebner, the majority of the High Court thought it necessary to distinguish between considerations of prudence and requirements of law. The court considered that, as a matter of prudence and professional practice, judicial officers should disclose interests and associations if there is a se rious possibility that they are potentially disqualifying.But it thought it was neither useful nor necessary to describe this practice in terms of rights or duties. Thus if a judicial officer does not disclose a non-disqualifying interest or association, his or her silence cannot reasonably support an inference of want of impartiality. Conclusion The High Court has emphasized that judicial officers should not be too ready to disqualify themselves when confronted with an insubstantial objection, lest that this will lead to forum shopping.But the same does not go to disclosure of potentially disqualifying interests or associations. Quite apart from any moral responsibility, recent decisions have shown the practical virtues of disclosure in circumstances of any doubt. But in determining any objection a court or tribunal should apply a method that requires there to be some logical connection between the alleged disqualifying matter and an inability to impartially determine the proceedin g.

Hybrid Cars

Hybrid cars are the transportation of the future. Humans have been driving around since the 1880’s. They started off as simple, one-cylinder machines, to today, where they are twelve cylinder animals. From fuel-efficient coupes, to gas guzzling SUVs, or even the ultra expensive supercars, all use gasoline. The use of this gasoline makes or breaks the selling point of the car. We base the cars off of their utility; the gas-guzzlers may be the ones with the most torque and pulling power, but the gas savers protect the environment and maybe save a few pennies in the pocket.Overall, the controversy is whether hybrid cars are really that much better than their all gas counterparts. Hybrid cars may save the environment from fuel emissions, but they do not save the driver nay substantial amount of money overall. The basics of a hybrid car are pretty easy, but the complexity comes with comparing them to all gasoline cars. The main aspect of a hybrid car is the engine. In normal gasoli ne cars there is only one engine, but in hybrid cars there is one gasoline engine and one electric engine. The two engines work in harmony; if the electric engine runs out of power the gasoline engine charges it.This process saves money on gas. Typically, a hybrid car get around 48-60 miles per gallon. This is a lot of mileage compared to most gasoline cars, which average about 18-26 miles per gallon. In addition to getting more gas mileage, hybrid cars cut down on fuel emissions. This can be illustrated by this graph: Another important aspect of a hybrid car is actually when it is coming to a stop. In a plain old car all of the energy and momentum that had been gained through accelerating is lost when braking. This makes city travel rather inefficient. Hybrids fix this; they capture breaking energy and use it to charge the battery.This not only saves fuel but also has less wear and tear on the break pads. In the same ballpark as the breaking, the engine saves fuel by turning off an d on often. When a hybrid vehicle comes to a complete stop the engine turns off and saves energy. It then restarts and turns back on once the accelerator is pressed. By doing this, energy is not wasted through idling. Utilizing the electric engine, it creates a boost for the combustion engine paired with it. This allows a smaller, less clunky, and more efficient engine to be used. Overall, the differences of the hybrid car make for a new technological driving experience.The value of a hybrid car is based off of its practicality. Does it really do what it says it does? Does it save me any money on gas? Does it function to cut down on emissions? Is it worth the extra money? Well here’s some information: a Honda Civic gets around 36 miles per gallon, a typical hybrid costs around $19,000-$25,000, a typical gas vehicle costs around $14,000-$17,000. The price difference comes from the complexity in the process of building the car. Also, not only affecting the price, the production of the car creates plenty of emissions and a whole bunch of energy. This puts â€Å"zero emission vehicles† to sleep.Creating another question, â€Å"Are all of these statistics true? † The production of hybrid cars has almost solely come from foreign countries, such as japan and China. Only recently have American companies been trying to dip their hand into the hybrid pool. Overall, the American creation of hybrids has only been poor attempts just to put their name out there in the market. Doing this is focusing on adding to their all gas cars because they also promote fuel efficiency. The drawbacks are clear and make the pros not quite outweigh the cons in the end. The wheel-to-well aspect put the nail in the coffin for hybrid cars.Focusing on the entire production, the process cancels its strives for efficiency by its complexity. Also, the argument for â€Å"zero emissions† is also false due to the process to create the car itself. Finally, the fuel usage ma y be a bit better then typical gas vehicles; it does not cancel out the immense price jump to the hybrid. This makes the price of the car not worth it, and much more favorable to buy it gas counterpart. Overall, the verdict is that a hybrid car does not really do that much for the driver except for its major selling points, â€Å"It’s a green, new technology! †

Public Health Issue Of Chlamydia Health And Social Care Essay

Chlamydia infection increases the likeliness of being at hazard for HIV infection and cervical malignant neoplastic disease ( Steben, 2004 ) . Known as the â€Å" concealed Venereal disease † because of the comparative trouble in observing infection, chlamydia is peculiarly common among immature adult females ( Alexander, 2006 ) . Numerous prevailing surveies in assorted clinical populations have shown that sexually active striplings and immature grownups have higher rates of chlamydia infection compared to the general population ( Adderley-Kelly, 2005 ) . In add-on, regional sterility undertakings that perform everyday large-scale showing and appraisal among adult females have found that younger adult females are more likely than older adult females to be tested positive for chlamydia infection ( Alexander, 2006 ; Adderley-Kelly, 2005 ) . Controling the spread of chlamydia has been a precedence of The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) ( 2010 ) . CDC recommends that sexually active females aged 20 old ages old and below and those over 20 old ages old possessing hazard factors ( e.g. multiple sex spouses ) be screened yearly. Literature besides supports the recommendation that Chlamydia testing through nursing wellness appraisal can help in early designation of the disease ( Steben, 2004 ) . Furthermore, instruction on bar could besides be implemented to raise consciousness about the hazard factors that are associated with the spread of this infection. Ahmed et Al. ( 2009 ) identified several hazard factors of Chlamydia, including age, race. deficiency of general cognition, holding multiple spouses, non-use of proper protection like rubber usage, and the use of resources or available plans to educate and forestall.Problem StatementThis survey recognizes that the high incidence of chlamydia can be mitiga ted through proper showing and early designation. More specifically, testing at-risk persons such as females aged 12 to 15 old ages old, would assist in the early sensing and bar of chlamydia infection. Due to the fact that the addition in chlamydia infection is among striplings, and the fact that it is many times symptomless, failure to seek medical attending occurs and later leads to long-run wellness concerns ( Alexander, 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Burns, Briggs, & A ; Gaudet, ( 2007 ) , set uping a chlamydia testing or testing plan for striplings has ever been hard. Barriers to testing include the inability to pay for wellness showing due to a deficiency of wellness insurance, deficiency of transit to the clinic site, uncomfortableness with the clinic, and confidentiality issues. These barriers, in concurrence with a disease that exhibits minimum or no symptoms, generate a challenge for STD plans to test a bad population. The U.S. Preventive Service Task Force ( USPSTF, 2001 ) strongly recommended that clinicians routinely screen all sexually active adult females aged 25 and younger, and other symptomless adult females at increased hazard for infection. Since age is the most of import hazard factor, adult females and striplings through age 20 old ages are at highest hazard for chlamydia infection. Other hazard factors associated with high prevalence included: being single, Afro-american race, holding a anterior history of sexually transmitted disease, holding new, or multiple sexual spouses, holding cervical ectopy, and utilizing barrier preventives inconsistently ( Adderley-Kelly, 2005 ) . Individual hazard depends on the figure of hazard factors and local prevalence of the disease. Surveies have shown that unequal showing, besides consequence from three things: foremost, it takes clip for any new recommendations to be implemented. Second, practician ‘s attachment to testing recommendations varies widely. Third, attachment to testing recommendations varies by site of attention. Therefore, it is of import to be able to discourse and obtain a sexual wellness history with all patients, place the marks and symptoms of chlamydia and acknowledge possible hazard factors that are associated with chlamydia infection that would put persons at higher hazard ( Steben, 2004 ) . As nurses, it is imperative that we complete a full wellness appraisal which would include a sexual history to place early hazard and sensing of the disease. Appropriate screens have non being followed to measure persons with possible hazard factors.AimThe intent of the survey is to look into whether annually testing of sexually-active females aged 13 to 25 will increase bar and early sensing of chlamydia infection, as compared to females aged 13 to 25 who are sexually active and are non screened.Designation of Variables and Target PopulationThe independent variable related to this research is testing. The dependent variables are 1 ) bar and 2 ) early sensing. The mark population is sexually active females aged 13 to 25 old ages old.Hypothesis or Research Question ( s )This survey aims to reply the undermentioned inquiry: Does testing take to bar and early sensing of chlamydia infection among sexually active females aged 13 to 25 old ages old? In relation to this research inquiry, the survey hypothesizes that: RH1: Sexually active females aged 13 to 25 old ages old who are screened are less likely to hold chlamydia infection than females who are non screened. RH2: Sexually active females aged 13 to 25 old ages old who are screened are detected earlier for chlamydia infection than females who are non screened.Definition of FootingsThe undermentioned footings are defined in theoretical and operational footings, as follows: Chlamydia Theoretical Definition: Harmonizing to the CDC ( 2010 ) , chlamydia is defined as a common sexually familial disease ( STD ) caused by chlamydia trachomatis, a bacteria that can damage adult females ‘s generative variety meats. Even though the symptoms of chlamydia are normally mild or absent, serious complications that cause irreversible harm, including sterility, can happen â€Å" mutely † before a adult female recognizes a job. Operational Definition: For the intents of this survey, chlamydia refers to a positive diagnosing made by a doctor through a urine-based PCR showing for chlamydia. Screening Theoretical Definition: Screening is performed to place the presence of the disease or of a hazard factor for a disease, typically among symptomless individuals ( those who do non already manifest symptoms of disease ) . In this manner, a disease or the hazard factors for a disease can be detected early, leting either intervention or bar, including forestalling the farther spread of catching or catching diseases ( Robinson, 2002 ) . Operational Definition: For the intent of this survey, testing involves a wellness history which identifies the hazard factors such as a old history of STD, holding multiple sex spouses, holding sex with new spouse, the usage of non-barrier types of contraceptive method, or holding cervical ectopy. Prevention Theoretical Definition: bar is the maintaining of something ( such as an unwellness or hurt ) from go oning ( Miller-Keane, 1997 ) . Operational Definition: For the intent of this survey, bar is the absence of chlamydia which will be indicated by a negative consequence diagnosed by a doctor through a urine-based PCR proving for chlamydia infection. Sexually active Theoretical Definition: Sexually active agencies engagement or engagement in a sexual act, being involved, and an active participant. Operational Definition: For the intent of this survey, sexually active females will mention to those who arranged a visit for gestation, STD diagnosing, showing, contraceptive method, or intervention.Theoretical ModelThe appropriate model selected for this proposal is Nola Pender ‘s wellness publicity theoretical account ( HPM ) . The HPM, originally developed in the early 1980s, is a model that serves as â€Å" a usher for geographic expedition of the complex biopsychosocial processes that motivate persons to prosecute in wellness behaviours directed toward the sweetening of wellness † ( Pender, 1996, p. 51 ) . The HPM is widely represented in the nursing literature and is the model that underpins over 100 research surveies. Pender ‘s HPM is a valuable tool for the designation of incentives and barriers toward persons ‘ active engagement in activities that promote wellness ( Pender, 1996 ) . Pender proposed in the HPM that there are by and large three countries which influence the acceptance of health-promoting behaviour: â€Å" cognitive, perceptual, modifying factors and cues to actions † ( Pender, 1996, p. 53 ) . Pender focuses on enterprise from the person to endeavor for health and positive wellness and views the benefits of such self-directing behaviours to include verve and even self-actualization. Pender measures an person ‘s â€Å" perceived control of wellness † by his or her ability to command behaviours that are necessary to advance alterations in overall wellness and wellbeing. Pender views wellness publicity as active instead than inactive. The individual must comprehend that he or she wields entire control of his wellness. Hopefully, this perceptual experience will take to a more frequent and consistent application of health-promoting behaviours. The apprehension of wellness advancing behaviours in striplings may non merely be an application of bing cognition related to wellness publicity in grownups ( Srof, 2006 ) . Rather the development of independency and the associated undertakings of adolescent development contribute to alone organic structure of cognition of wellness publicity in teens ( Srof, 2006 ) . Pender ‘s HPM provides a paradigm in an attempt to come up with intercession plans to turn to wellness concerns such as chlamydia infection. Literature has revealed that there are several barriers to prevention attempts initiated by authorities bureaus and not-for-profit organisations to control the spread of Chlamydia infection among younger adult females ( Alexander, 2006 ) . The HPM theoretical account identifies seven perceptual and cognitive factors which could discourage or heighten the likeliness of a individual ‘s acceptance of wellness behaviours. For striplings, these factors could be perceived benefits of action, barriers to action, self-efficacy, and activity-related effects are related to interpersonal influences, such as household, equals, situational influences, options, and demands. As I relate this theoretical account chiefly to striplings and their increased hazard of chlamydia infection, the fact that striplings do non take portion in their ain wellness promotion/disease bar through the usage of rubbers to forestall the spread of STD infections demonstrates the demand to turn to and place each person ‘s perceptual experience of chlamydia infections which could impact his or her quality of life in all developmental phases of life. This survey will stress on modifying factors to include demographics, biological features, interpersonal influences, situational factors, and behavioural factors that could impact a immature adult female ‘s opportunities of prosecuting in behaviours that promote wellness ( Pender, 1996 ) .Significance of StudyThis research proposal seeks to look into the importance of testing as a mechanism to diminish the hazard of chlamydia infections among sexually active females aged 13 to 25. It is of import to screen and educate thi s population about possible hazard factors and preventative steps such as the usage of instruction, supportive resources, rubbers and abstention. Because the disease is chiefly symptomless in females, it is of import for nurses and other health care suppliers to place and follow recommended showing and appraisal of these persons. A job identified in the literature reappraisal is that there is some incompatibility in testing females for STDs due to varies grounds ( Streben, 2004 ) . The CDC ( 2010 ) has recommended showing of all sexually active females ages 13-25 yearly, but it is questionable whether such showing is really taking topographic point. It is besides dubious how many females of this age group routinely see healthcare suppliers unless a job has been identified. This survey would do a difference by pulling a relationship between testing and bar and early sensing of chlamydia in a bad population. In so making, it contributes to the organic structure of literature formed by authorities bureaus, research workers, and non-profit wellness organisations that have initiated plans to cut down the prevalence of chlamydia in immature adult females. Screening will besides depict barriers and hazard factors to infection such as multiple sex spouses, STD history, or deficiency of usage of protective barriers such as rubber usage. In the procedure, this survey will foreground the important function of healthcare suppliers in showing, educating, and observing marks and symptoms of chlamydia infection and the importance of systematically executing sexual wellness history, appraisal, and showings to convey about a lessening in the incidence of this disease.

Strategy as Revolution by Gary Hamel Literature review

Strategy as Revolution by Gary Hamel - Literature review Example Hamel argues in his article that while change may not be welcomed so easily, it should take the courage and initiative of the rule breakers or those in favor of new approaches to present clearly their positions to the senior management for subsequent adoption as policies. Worth noticing is that while Hamel encourages revolutionary approach in policy formulation and demand for change, he nevertheless points out that organizational hierarchy should be respected and a good method which incorporates everyone should be adopted as the best way forward. Introduction For a longtime, many business enterprises have been concerned about the direction of the business, normally employing the tested methodologies that work, or at least the ones that have been approved or put into practice by old establishments. Management is normally concerned with where the business is making an effort to get to in the long run, which, I must say, is not bad only that every other business has the same dream: dire ction. By the same token of concern for business direction, so are they also concerned about which market a business should venture into and what competition strategies are anticipated to work in their best interest? Not only will you find these businesses also doing research on what resources in terms of assets, facilities, technical competence and even finance, but also on what to expect in the external environment. Well planned, that is the trend, unaltered as propounded by many old theories of economics. This is not to dispute the validity of these theories, because when they were formulated, they laid the foundation of the current market scenarios that we see today. To put it differently, suffice it to say that this is what management has for a long time accepted as strategy. So then, what is strategy? Johnson and Scholes define strategy as the direction and scope an organization takes to achieve long term market goals. Strategy exists under different levels such as corporate s trategy, business unit strategy and operational strategy. Article Critique Hamel (Hamel, 1996, p. 69) observes that in the recent past, business firms are all struggling to expand in what he terns as a fight for incrementalism. He also observes that in the current time and space, success is being achieved by how fast firms respond to customers' desires. In addition to this, Hamel also finds out that while this strategy is being adopted by firms, not all, business firms have earned themselves positions in the competitive market either as rule-makers or rule-breakers (Hamel, 1996, p.70; Choe Maker, 1995: 31). That either business firms set rules on how they want to operate in the market or as would be campaigned for, revolutionize the whole system of conformity to predetermined set of rules of the early economists. His view is both divergent and emergent in the sense that he deviates from the norms and presents emerging issues around strategizing in an organization. Anderson (1999, p. 217) and Beinhocker (1999, p. 98) agree with Hamel that organization change is fundamental for laying strategy. With this in mind, Hamel rightly argues that while rule-setters may survive now, rule-breakers, also known as revolutionaries, have a futuristic strategy that will propel them to be the market leaders in the future. He goes on to explore how organizations have conducted themselves towards success or stagnation and assesses this through what he classifies as the ten principles of liberating revolutionary spirit for the success of an organization (Hamel, 1996, p. 70). Like to

Nursing Care Plan for Dementia and Analysis Essay

Nursing Care Plan for Dementia and Analysis - Essay Example It will be the primary objective that the patient be assessed with utmost scrutiny in regards his physical, mental, and behavioural conditions. In this way, the health care giver will know the key areas of concern and be able to supply adequate attention and intervention. In the development of a holistic nursing care plan, the locus of attention is not only the person with dementia. It caters to the family and the institutional care givers as well, because there evolves a complex interplay of roles among these components of the triad. A holistic approach in intervention conveys the need to apply a variety of dementia approaches to ensure better treatment of the signs and symptoms associated with Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Medical history is important in the clinical diagnosis. After gathering the medical records of the patient, social and environment factors including his family will also be part of the assessment in order to inquire about the patient’s physical, psychological and behavioural manifestations during the time when Bill is under their custody of care. All information obtained from the evaluations will help the nurse practitioner to assess the patient’s current functional state and ability and therefore determine the best treatment or intervention. Likewise, assessment of the patient’s incontinence which includes his urine and bowel elimination is important as this is one of the key areas of concern. Bill has been incontinent of urine since 2006 and incontinent of faeces in 2007. Through employment of regular toileting, the patient would be able to maintain skin integrity and with the establishment of such pattern, reduction of faecal incontinence and anxiety manifestation may be obtained. Daily charting and documentation of the patient’s skin integrity and bowel movement would be developed. Second, Nutrition is also assessed, by obtaining Bill’s weight and

Benefits of online classes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Benefits of online classes - Essay Example Therefore, working professionals or recent high school graduates see many reasons to enrol for some or all of their courses online since the benefits are numerous. Online learning offers diverse programs that allow the learners various opportunities. Students have the option of taking the traditional four year degree courses or any other ones. Regardless of the course a student wishes to enrol for, whether nursing or business management, there is an online course or a degree program that they can find. All kinds of academic degrees can also be earned online, form a certificate all the way to a doctorate. The online classes are also comparatively low-priced than the conventional college classes. Nevertheless, not all the online classes are cheaper than the traditional college classes, the costs that are associated with these classes and usually far much cheaper. For instance, there are no costs incurred for commuting and in some cases there are required course materials like books since these are available free online. Colleges and institutes of higher education have started accepting credits that have been earned through massive open online co urses that are free which is the recent advance in online learning. Online classes that are offered in this courses can assist students achieve education requirements at minimal costs. The online classes also offer a comfortable learning environment for the students who enrol for them since physical class sessions do not exist. Materials that are used by the students in the course are sent electronically, after which they read them and work on their assignments. The students do not have to deal with traffic, look for parking spaces or leave their places of employment early to rush to class. The online classes allow students a chance to plan time for classes around their day instead of having to plan the day

Learning Theory Applications Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learning Theory Applications - Research Paper Example They looked at the major themes in history and let students relate it to their own lives, allowing each student’s culture to be part of the curriculum. Dean and Gilbert took the roles as facilitators during the activity. Students analyzed the information, talked about the text, related it to their personal lives and thus, created meaningful learning experiences in the class. Yvonne Scott used the butterfly project which allowed students to plan among each other their roles based on their interest and strengths. The students created â€Å"departments,† and the class was run like a business/company. Suggestion: Not all students were able to express their ideas, and there were just quite a number who dominated the exchange of opinions. Working in small groups and making sure that everyone speaks at the beginning can encourage more students to participate in the discussion. Avram Barlow recreates the zeitgeist at the time when the laws were created and makes the students put themselves in the shoes of the law makers and civilians, and let them express their opinions and feelings about these laws. Barlow clarifies and rephrases the ideas put forth by the students. This form of feedback validates what they said, and ensures that students that they are listened to. Barlow also makes sure that they stay within the questions and objectives of the discussion. He restates the questions when it appears that they are getting off topic. Shaheen acknowledges students vary in the assistance that they need. He is more confident of students who take notes during discussion and those who take risks. He gave tips on how a student gives feedback and demonstrates how this will be helpful to her peer. Suggestion: Students who are not very comfortable may not initially want to work in groups. Paired work may be given first while gradually moving into small groups. This initially establishes mutual trust and a safe

Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Depression - Essay Example Therefore, there are some differences in symptoms of depression depending on stage of development, gender, and culture. Depression is not a weakness, however, a severe ailment with genetic, mental, as well as social features to its causes, signs, and treatment; an individual cannot ignore it because if left unattended to, it may get worse, and if it is undertreated, it will reoccur again. There are selected collective signs and indications of depression, although it differs from individual to individual. It is significant that an individual remembers that these indications can be part of natural life`s regular low point. However, the more indications a person has, the resilient they are, and the lengthier they have persisted, the more possible it is that a person is handling the depression. Examples of signs includes loss of interests in day-to-day practices, changes in sleeping, alteration in appetite, energy loss, as well as loss of self-esteem. In most cases, depression is the key aspect for suicide (Glen, 2007). The profound desolation and desperateness that goes together with depression can create perversity appear like the single manner to do away with agony. Therefore, this shows that the feelings of passing away are a severe indication of depression. According to research, dejected men are less prospective than women to recognize thoughts of self-disgust and desperation (Nolen, 2001). Rather, they always grumble about fatigue, irritability, and loss of concentration in their daily activities. Despite the fact that the amounts of depression in females are high than those in men, it is noted that men are at a higher danger of committing suicide, and in particular grown-up

The Effects of the Death of a Parent on Normal Child Development Research Paper

The Effects of the Death of a Parent on Normal Child Development - Research Paper Example The first major difference is of quality and organization of the information being used. The professionally reviewed article has used the appropriate terminology and information boundaries like population being analyzed are clearly defined which makes the scope and depth of article crystal clear. The abstract explicitly defines the issue, stakeholders and various aspects to be discussed in the article. The author has correlated the information with his personal experiences of abandonment in early age. The effects like depression, addiction, hopelessness, homelessness, split loyalty and uselessness among children, adolescents and adults are discussed with the help of specific examples and case studies. Expert opinions and professional theories are constantly referred in the article to draw intellectually sound inferences. The magazine article on the topic is rather general and instead of a professional review it takes the shape of author’s opinion on abandonment and parental lo se. Article boundaries are vague and the information is not backed by expert opinions and professional theories. The effects of parental loss and remedies are not discussed at length rather a suggestive approach is adopted to provide solution.

The analysis of the academic texts by Adler and Marvin, Turino and Essay

The analysis of the academic texts by Adler and Marvin, Turino and Daughtry - Essay Example Moreover Daughtry (62) explains that momentum is directly related to emotional power and can either be positive or negative. However, in a battle of two, positive momentum is gained by only one party while the other party experiences negative momentum. Music and other sounds may be used to initiate the negative momentum. As outlined by Turino (221), emotional power of music often results to two impacts. It can either be positive or negative depending on the situation in which music is employed. Negative momentum may also result from the internal among the team members ore the players in the field. External negative momentum is generally initiated by the opponents especially when they are able to initiate morale and motivate their players. This is usually experienced by musical instruments, songs, chats and songs that are mainly meant to discourage or mock the opponents. This was evident especially during the time when racial discrimination was on its peak in the United States of Amer ica. It was evident that the society was much divided such that the blacks were supporting blacks while the whites also played alone. Internal negative momentum can arise from the internal activities by the players themselves. For example, when the actions by one or two members of the team are not pleasing to the other members of the team, there is loss of moral as well as reduction in the play. According to Turino (222), this result into a condition of hopelessness and the players feel that they no longer own the play. Later a pessimistic attitude change develops and the individuals begin to think of losing the game rather than winning the game. At this time, the players experiencing negative attitudes towards each other in the game and what remains are to wait for the game... The analysis of the academic texts by Adler and Marvin, Turino and Daughtry Turino, Thomas’ Signs of Imagination, Identity, and experience: A Pircian Semiotic theory for music is an exploration of the emotional power of music in the activities of individuals, families and communities. This article also illustrates the intimate interfaces of sound structures, identity and social structures as well as incorporating the views of other scholars. Adler and Marvin’s Momentum: A Theory of Social Action explores the idea of momentum development in sports and the several ways by which individuals and teams can develop or gain momentum. Alder and Marvin have also discussed the impacts of positive and negative momentum in a team’s performance. Daughtry’s Russia’s New Anthem and the Negotiation of National Identity has outlined how music derives self image. In this article, Daughtry discusses several case studies in which music reflects national image and identity of a nation. In sporting activities, it is usually common to listen to m ost sport analysts from different categories of the games puts more emphasis on fans contributing to the performance of a team. It is a common knowledge that a team that has many fans is likely to win in a game. Generally, understanding of the theory and the actual sports experiences reveal that momentum is very important in all the games. However caution should be taken to ensure that the generated momentum is not negative since negative momentum is destructive and results to feeling of uselessness and lost of hope in the game.

Cost Concepts and Their Application Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cost Concepts and Their Application - Essay Example Examples are number of units of output and direct labour hours (Datar, Horngren, & Foster 1999, p. 27 - 58). Costs are classified so that data obtained from them will be useful to management. Costs can be classified (1) by the nature of the cost items, (2) with respect to the accounting period, (3) by their tendency to vary with the level of activity, (4) by their relation to the product (product costing), and (5) for analysis or decision making (Datar, Horngren, & Foster 1999, p. 27 - 58; The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology 2000). In a manufacturing concern, the two main types of cost items are manufacturing costs or factory costs and commercial expenses. Examples of manufacturing costs include direct material costs, direct labour costs, and factory overheads. Examples of commercial expenses include selling and distribution costs, administration costs, and financial costs. With respect to the accounting period, costs could be capital expenditure or revenue expenditure. Capital expenditure is intended to benefit future periods and classified as an asset. For example, the pur chase of fixed asset is a capital expenditure. Revenue expenditure benefits the current period and is classified as an expense. The distinction between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure is essential for proper matching of costs and revenues to accurately determine periodic profits. By their tendency to vary with the level of activity, costs could be classified as variable costs, fixed costs, semi-fixed costs or step costs, and semi-variable costs. Variable costs are costs that vary directly in proportion to change in activity or volume of a chosen cost object. Fixed costs are costs that do not change with changes in level of activity or output over a certain time period or relevant range. Relevant range is defined as the range of activity over which the amount of fixed expenses and rate of variability remain unchanged. This applies to all expenses, whether they are fixed, variable, or semi-variable. Semi-fixed costs or step costs are costs fixed over a certain range of out put but jump to a new level when the range is exceeded. Semi-variable costs show characteristics of both fixed and variable costs. A minimum of some expenses has to be maintained in order to maintain operational readiness. At this level of maintenance costs are fixed. Beyond this level costs become variable. By their relation to the product (product costing), costs can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs are costs that can be easily traced to the cost objects. Indirect costs are costs that cannot be easily traced to the cost objects. For the purpose of analysis and decision making, costs are classified into incremental costs, differential costs, sunk costs, avoidable costs, unavoidable costs, marginal, and opportunity costs. Incremental costs is the difference in totals between two alternatives or the addition cost of making a change, such as increasing the activity level or adding a new product line. Differential costs are costs that change in response to an action. Sunk costs are costs that have been incurred in the past and that cannot be changed. It is therefore irrelevant for decision making. Avoidable costs are costs that may be avoided if an activity is discontinued or if another alternative is adopted. Unavoidable costs are

Childhood Case Study Essay Example for Free

Childhood Case Study Essay When I was a child the world seemed to be a place of joy and happiness to me. There was nothing worth worrying about. Whenever I cried somebody picked me up. When I did not like to sit alone, I was always in somebody’s army. My father was one of my heroes since young. I idolize him as I grow up and to everything like him. I often ask my father to tell me about his childhood experience and he loves telling funny stories or describing unusual situations. When he talks to me about those years, I feel like I see the past through his eyes. I think he was really happy as a child. Normally in my mind, I would compare my father’s childhood and mine. My father and I had very different childhood in terms of social problem, family background, technology and education. Firstly, social problem within my father’s and my own childhood in terms of freedom. As a child, my dad will be playing out the whole day; running, laughing and not worrying. My dad lived in a village where the children from the whole village were a big company. They would all play together without fighting and arguing all the time. Heck, my grandparents didn’t have to worry about my dad that much. They are used to let their children play a lot of hours with freedom without being nervous or stressed about it. They knew their children were safe. I, on the other hand, had a must lesser freedom compared to my father. Back then, I don’t get to go out and play with the other children due to safety reasons. My parents were very afraid of this worlds’ dangers. In fact, there weren’t many children to play with in streets compared to the â€Å"good old days†. I get to go the playground to play once awhile but there were so few to play with. Next, our family background was also very different in terms of social status and financial status. My dad was born a year later after my country’s independence, so technically he was the 1st generation of official Malaysian in Malaysia. My country is also a multiracial country so long story short, my dad had social status issues with other races during his childhood. When he was 10, my dad experienced things that no child should which was the May 13th Incident. The May 13th incident refers to the Sino-Malay sectarian violence in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in which many Malaysian-Chinese died in  1969. I can only imagine how terrifying it was for my dad to live through that incident as a child. I, however, lived peacefully as a Malaysian-Chinese without such incident. During my generation, my social status has already develop stability, my race was recognize as the 3 main races in Malaysia. I also have a good financial support as a child compared to my father. Back then my grandfather was an immigrant from China, owning a small business to raise his family. My father did not receive much financial as a child. During elementary school, my father had to help out with my grandfather’s business. I’m consider very fortunate as my father worked hard to ensure that my childhood did not have to be like his. Then, the advancement of science and technology effect both my dad’s childhood and my own in terms of entertainment. Back then the time where video games were like rocket science and cellphones where as big as bricks. Entertainment in technology wasn’t really available at my dad’s childhood thus explaining the big company of children playing outside all the time, but it didn’t mean it didn’t exist in that time. Back then, my dad really enjoyed listening to the radio. The radio was practically the main source of entertainment in terms of technology; it had music, podcast, news and etc. My dad was considered lucky to even have a colored television in his own home and there was not much to watch as well. I, in my childhood days, had the privilege of watching Disney channel on my decoder with my cartoons. In addition, technology was my source of entertainment with my game consoles and televisions. Which also the cause of me not going out that much as a child. Technology allow my childhood to not need the company of the other, to play with. Communication was also much better thanks to technology. During elementary, affordable cellphones were available where my dad can contact me at any time. The same couldn’t be said for my dad back then, as owning cellphone was considered a luxury. Lastly, people say education is key to every childhood, but in that sense both my father and I had very different education environment and background in our childhood. My dad, back then, lived where education is very scarce. They weren’t many schools near where my dad lived. My grandmother had to cycle my dad to his school to drop off and pick up daily. If that isn’t bad  enough, my father had to have extra classes at the Chinese temple nearby just to learn Mandarin. During my time, my country has already development an effective education system to follow. Many schools were also available during that time. Mandarin is actually implemented into the educational system as a subject taught in public schools. I’m glad that I’m fortunate enough to have these facilities in my grasp in my childhood. Childhood is free from cares. There are no duties and responsibilities on the shoulders of a child. A child eats drinks, sleeps and plays. When he eats a piece of bread, he does not think from where it comes. His father alone knows that. Even when someone dies in the family, a child is not touched. As child lives in a bliss of ignorance and innocence. Despite the differences in our childhood, my dad and I both enjoyed part of our childhood and we will cherish these moments for life.

The Tourism Industry In Sri Lanka Tourism Essay

The Tourism Industry In Sri Lanka Tourism Essay This report contains the results of the investigation which is done to find out how the new born peace will affect the tourism industry of Sri Lanka after defeating the LTTE leader Brabhakaran and washing out terrorism from Sri Lanka. The main areas used for the investigation are, The problems occurred in Sri Lankan tourism industry due to war. Under this area, this investigation is carried over the major problems which Sri Lankan tourism industry faced because of the war. This is mainly carried out through secondary data such as news paper articles, other articles from the websites and report published by Sri Lankan tourism development Authority. Some of the facts were gathered through the questionnaire given to the director of the Sri Lankan tourist Board, London. Affects of new born peace to Investors Under this factor the investigation runs towards the new opportunities which investors will have in the future after the war and what will be the incentives and advantages of investing in those areas. This is also mainly done through the secondary data such as newspaper articles, brochures and reports published by the Sri Lankan tourism development authority, websites. Tourists The research carried over to find out what will happen to the number of tourist arrivals in future after the war. What are the new facilities will offer by Sri Lankan tourism industry, what will be the attracting destinations developed and how will the government help in developing tourism industry. Mainly this is carried out by primary data which is collected through the questionnaire and others were gathered from the secondary data. Social life and local people In this research is on the changes, that will happen on social life and the local people with the new born peace and its affects on tourism. These information were gathered by using both primary and secondary data. Areas and regions Here the investigation is on the tourist areas which will affect the new born peace. The report contains the new developments of tourist areas will be done in Sri Lanka. The research is done using secondary data such as websites. PEST analysis SWOT analysis This research carried a PEST analysis and a Swot Analysis in order to find out how the political, economical, social and technological environments will change or adjust according to the peace affected tourism. Also an analysis for SWOT to find out the strengths opportunities that will strengthen the growth of the tourism industry and weaknesses threats which will weaken the growth of the tourism industry. For this both primary and secondary data have been used. Specially the report publishes by Sri Lanka tourism development authority. Sri Lankan tourism industry will grow in future with the developments and growth in investments, tourists, areas and regions and local people in this peaceful environment. Finally Sri Lanka will create a golden period for the tourism industry in the new born peace. INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka is a country famous for hospitality, tourism and well being people from the past. Once Marco Polo has told in 1293 A.D., this for its actual size, is better circumstanced than any other island in the world. The island produces more beautiful and valuable rubies than found in any other place in the world. In this island there is a very high mountains where the tomb of Adam, our first parent, is supposed to be found. (Ref:http://www.traveldailynews.com/pages/show_page/31677-Sri-Lanka-TourismQuo-vadis- ) But since from the near past (1980s) Sri Lankan tourism industry dropped step by step, as LTTEs started their terrorism mainly from the North part of Sri Lanka and spread to East and other parts of the country later on. Fortunately now Sri Lanka is free from terrorism after about 3 decades. Therefore the country is safe to roam from North to South East to West without any double thoughts. This situation has affected on tourism industry in a positive manner. Now the tourism industry is blooming again slowly within the new born peace and has become a cause to change the Sri Lankan Economy, Political view, social life on tourism and many more. Therefore this report has investigated on How the new born peace will affect the tourism industry in Sri Lanka. This report contains, The problems occurred in Sri Lankan tourism industry due to war. The affects of new born peace to Investors in tourism industry Tourists Areas and Regions Social life of local people The opportunities due the new born peace a). PEST b). SWOT METHODOLOGY This research is done by gathering information from both primary data and secondary data. Primary Data I have used an interview and a questionnaire as the primary data in finding information for the research. Secondary data I have used mainly the latest report (National Strategy for Sri Lanka Tourism) published by Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority and broachers, magazines news paper articles, websites as the secondary data. THE PROBLEMS OCCURED IN SRI LANKAN TOURISM INDUSTRY DUE TO WAR Sri Lanka experienced a vastly fluctuating tourism during the past decades. (Ref: http://www.traveldailynews.com/pages/show_page/31677-Sri-Lanka-TourismQuo-vadis- ) As per the World Tourism Organisation figures, tourist arrivals has increased in Asian countries for the past decade. (Ref: http://www.traveldailynews.com/pages/show_page/31677-Sri-Lanka-TourismQuo-vadis- ) But Sri Lanka has dropped tourist arrivals. (Ref: Central Bank of Sri Lanka) While all the other foreign exchange earning sectors have increased their earnings, tourism has decreased though it is the fourth largest foreign exchange earning sector. (Ref: http://www.traveldailynews.com/pages/show_page/31677-Sri-Lanka-TourismQuo-vadis- ) Bombing in buses and tourist destinations caused a huge draw back in tourist arrivals. Even though Sri Lankan tourist board offers them worth packages they didnt want to visit Sri Lanka because of the safety reason. (Ref: http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=47983 ) Bad press releases during the war time, both internally and internationally affected vastly tourists decisions on Sri Lanka. Some were distributed only to get political gains and some were to draw a bad picture on tourists mind about Sri Lanka and get advantages. Higher insurance covers had prompted tourists to see elsewhere. Insurance covers were high because of the high risk level of security within the country. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 15) Good employees of tourism industry have gone to other countries due to poor salaries and lack of opportunities among the industry. Lack of government support in promoting the industry according to the changes in the market. AFFECTS OF NEW BORN PEACE TO INVESTORS During the past 3 decades investors for tourism industry were locked within the Southern Middle part of the country. But now they have the opportunity to invest in all over the country as they wish. Especially in North East regions which has most famous places to visit such as most beautiful beaches, temples, etc. with the end of war, tourist arrivals may increase. Therefore the government and the private sector has to be ready to welcome them with good accommodation facilities, infrastructure, transportation facilities, and many more. For that investors can invest in the new environment which is more favourable to them. Some of the favourable are, Cost of doing business has reduced due to the end of war. Freight rates, insurance, and other financial issues which added a huge cost for business has now decreased. Therefore investors can get more profits over their investments. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html ) Political stability is growing especially in areas of North East. This leads to stability in policies and rules. Therefore investors can invest in long-term projects. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/FT335.html ) The government of Sri Lanka has started providing infrastructure such as roads, power, and ports. This also again reduce investors costs in investing. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Stock market has climbed over 96% in 2009 which is the winning year of the war. Itll be more profitable in investing stock market in future. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) Interest Rates and Inflation rate are coming down. The Sri Lankan government has reduced their lending rates and has asked the private sector to reduce their lending rates. This is a very usefull and profitable information who wishes to borrow fund in Sri Lanka. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) The end of war has cleared new paths for new investment opportunities across real estate, healthcare, plantation, and infrastructure. Especially in North and East regions for about 3 decades there were no opportunities for any industry to do their work freely. What was there is only war. Therefore there are opportunities for hospitals and other healthcare facilities, plantation as this region has the most rich lands and infrastructure as all the infrastructures have been destroyed during war season. These are indirectly interconnected to tourism industry. Because tourism industry is a industry which depends on other industries other than the destinations. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) Cheap labour Investors can have cheap labour in to their businesses ass the unemployment is more in North and East. New tourist destinations. There are new and marvellous locations and places in North and East which were not allowed to visit for about three decades. These places will be more tourist attracting destinations in future. And also the ruined buildings and places due to war will be attracting sceneries for both local and foreign tourists. As the Northern and Eastern areas were banned for visitors during the war period, both local people and foreign people are willing to visit these places. Therefore the arrivals of visitors for the North and East will be more and this will lead investors to earn more from those areas by investing in accommodation facilities, infrastructure, transportation, sports activities and leisure activities. Sri Lankan government is looking for Middle eastern investors to develop the resorts as a preparation for the boost in tourism industry. (Ref: http://www.arabianbusiness.com/554986-sri-lanka-tourism-eyes-mideast-investors ) MSME will have more opportunities to develop their business with growth in tourism. There will be more ports other than Colombo to use. They are the Trincomalee port and The Hambantota port. Earlier these ports were used only for military activities but now they are open for common activities. FOR TOURISTS New born peace has given a new life for both domestic and international tourists. Specially Northern and Eastern areas are the most attracting areas of tourists these days because of the unseen destinations such as temples, beaches, ruins, etc. Also the current favourable security level has given tourists a boom. Here are some more tips for the change in tourists behaviour. New unseen locations. Tourists, both local and foreign can experience world famous and beautiful locations which are not polluted or crowded. Especially the Eastern sea and Nilavelli beach are the most attracting areas in the Eastern region. Other attracting things are whale spotting, fishing, water sports, sea rafting. Also the locations with historical value and religious value, especially in Northern area, such as Nagadeepa, Jaffna library, ruins of war, etc. Not only in North East, tourists can visit other places such as Anuradapura, Polonnaruwa, Mohinthale, Sigiriya, Sinharaja rain forest, National Parks, hill-country which is famous as little England, etc. Safety Now Sri Lanka is free from bombs, suicide bombers, and terrorism. Therefore people can visit anywhere in the country without fearing about safety from LTTE activities. This was the main reason which reduced more and more tourist arrivals. But now it is fully solved. So tourists have the opportunity to explore Sri Lanka without fear. Proper Facilities The Sri Lankan government and the private sector is building infrastructure fast to provide proper facilities for tourists such as roads, power and ports. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Also proper places for accommodation and other facilities are building up so that the tourists may feel that they are at home. More leisure and sports activities Sri Lankan sea is famous for sports activities. And now tourists have more opportunities in Eastern Sea. Because Eastern sea is known as a sea which is very calm and good for sports activities such as rafting, whale spotting. Also Sri Lanka has a unchanging whether throughout the year. Therefore tourists can come and enjoy whenever they have leisure time. Stable political environment As now Sri Lanka is bit stable in their political status due to the end of war. Therefore policies and rules in tourism especially rules in arriving will be stable. So that itll be very easy for tourists while visiting Sri Lanka especially on Visas. And there will be less political violence among the country which will create a peaceful environment for tourists. New resorts for both local and foreign tourists especially in Nothern and Eastern areas. Also in other areas as the investors are interested in investing tourism sector. Example: Kuchchaveli resort Passikudah resort Sri Lanka is not famous only for leisure tourists but also for pilgrims. Therefore Pilgrim rests are building in order to provide proper facilities especially for domestic tourists. (Ref: National Strategy For Sri Lankan Tourism- page no 61) More facilities for business tourists. Sri Lanka was famous for MICE activities in the past. But it dropped due to the poor security. Now again MICE activities are booming in Sri Lanka with the new born peace. Therefore the government is looking to provide better facilities for businessmen who come to Sri Lanka for MICE activities. Tourists will be able to arrive Sri Lanka not only by air but also by cruise ships as now Sri Lanka has 2 more ports. Trincomalee port and Hambantota port are the two new ports which has started work after war. TO AREAS AND REGIONS After the war especially the Northern and Eastern regions have started to develop fast. Also the other areas of the country are developing faster as the governments military cost has reduced. This helps in developing tourism industry. For examples, The local areas are developing as the government has already started developing infrastructure in North and East regions. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Kuchchaveli Resort This is a area about 500 acres in Trincomalee district which is inbetween the North Nilaweli beach and Kuchchaveli village. This resort contains hotels, other facilities regarding accommodation, land and water based sports and a theme park. This will help in attracting more tourists in future. (Ref: http://www.sltda.lk/eastern_region_development ) Passikudah project SLTDA has planned to restart the Passikudah resort project which was planned to start in 1983 and stopped due to war. This resort is located by the Passikudah bay and contains 500 rooms in about 150 acres. This project will also generate high tourist arrivals. (Ref: http://www.sltda.lk/passikudah_project ) Trincomalee and Hambantota ports will be busy with commercial ships and cruise ships with visitors and goods. TO SOCIAL LIFE AND LOCAL PEOPLE Peace has changed the social lives of people especially in the parts where fighting were there. Those people did not know anything about outside apart from those areas which they live. But now the situation is changed. People are free to open up to the world. Many have started to work with the tourism industry because of the huge number of tourists arrivals. People from other parts of the country are also free to live their lives without the fear of terrorism. They are more common in North and East as domestic tourists. because they were not allowed to visit those places for about 3 decades and the people from North and East are free to visit other South part of Sri Lanka after 3 decades. Here are some of the affect of the end of war to the social life and local people from the view point of tourism. Political stability is growing. so that people are able to stay wherever they want to stay and they are free to visit wherever they want. Also the rules and policies of regarding business will remain same. Therefore local people can start small scale businesses such as small hotels, guest houses, rent three-wheelers, batik, etc. especially in tourist areas. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Government has started to work with infrastructure especially in North and East areas. Therefore its be easy and fast to develop tourist oriented businesses as well as other businesses in those areas. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Interest rates and inflation is decreasing. So that people may borrow money and invest in their businesses and build their damaged properties. And this will create a beautiful eye-catching areas for tourists. also the prices of goods will decrease due to lower inflation and it will create wealth among people. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) There will be more employment opportunities with the incensement in tourist arrivals and other tourism activities in all over the country. People will have more money with them so that they will be motivated to visit places and go for day outs, picnics and trips. More fishing opportunities in North and East. Tourism police will have to be expanded to stop drug trafficking, prostitution and abuse of children with the full support of the courts, local people and politicians as the tourism industry grows. Guides, lecturers, drivers, three-wheeler entrepreneurs, will get more opportunities especially in North East as well as the other parts of Sri Lanka due to growth in tourist arrivals. Also owners of small guesthouses with one or two rooms, small hotels, restaurants, bar, tea boutiques will have a increase in their income. Arts crafts, spice gardens, batik, woodwork centres, wellness centre also will increase their sales. PEST ANALYSIS POLITICAL FACTORS Political environment has changed after the war in order to develop tourism industry. The government supports by conducting investment symposium such as BizPact invest in Sri Lanka which was held in June 2009 to attract new investments. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Political stability is growing specially in North and East regions after the war. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html) Government is aiming to welcome 700,000 to 750,000 visitors by 2011 through visit Sri Lanka programme. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) Government is looking for Middle Eastern investors to develop the resorts after the war. (Ref: http://www.arabianbusiness.com/554986-sri-lanka-tourism-eyes-mideast-investors ) Reorganised the tourist board and ministry in order to deliver a good service. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 04) Develop a 4 year strategic plan for tourism for the period of 2009-2012. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 04) The Ministry, in partnership with the provincial council are creating a series of recommended one day tours especially for domestic tourists (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 62) ECONOMICAL FACTORS Sri Lankan economy has changed vastly with the new opportunities occurred with the new peace after the war. Following are the factors which will affect Sri Lankan tourism as a result of ending war. Doing business in Sri Lanka is more economical because the cost has reduced due to reductions in fright rates, insurance and other financial issues. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html ) Stock market has increased over 96% in 2009 after war. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) Inflation and interest rates are coming down. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) The North East will contribute heavily to GDP growth in the country. (Ref: http://srilankatoday.com/content/view/2586/52/ ) People will have more money with them. Commercial ships can come to new ports such as Trincomalee and Hambantota other than Colombo. Trincomalee port is in the East and Hambantota is in South. Therefore the country is available with 3 main ports around the country. MICE trade will grow with the peaceful environment. Earlier MICE industry experienced cancellations a sharp fall in arrivals due to the security issues such as suicide bombing. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 55) SOCIAL FACTORS The new born peace has changed the lifestyles, consumer trends, ethics and religious factors and many more with the affects of tourism industry. Addition of North and East provinces to the tourism industry will boost employment opportunities as well as the developments in other part of the country will also introduce more employment opportunities. All the development activities are done by taking care of the community, environment, culture and heritage especially in tourism and hospitality industry. Northern Eastern people get fishing opportunities and also people from other areas can come to these areas for fishing. Tourism police has to be expanded to stop drug tracking, prostitution and child abusing with the development of the tourism industry. People who own small guesthouses, small hotels, restaurants, bar, tea boutiques will be able to earn more. Also people who do arts and crafts, spice gardens, batik shops, woodwork will be able to earn more with the increased number of tourists. Guides, lecturers, drivers, three-wheeler entrepreneurs will have a higher demand. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS Especially the Northern and Eastern areas have started to develop technologically after the war. This has made a great issue for the development in tourism industry because many foreign tourists are from developed countries such as UK, Spain, Germany, Australia, etc. and they will be more satisfied if they have the modern technology to use while they are visiting the beauty of Sri Lanka. Mobile telecommunication industry will also boom due to the addition of North and East to the tourism industry. Travel sources such as coaches, trains, cars, taxies have to be developed to provide quality services. Working towards improving websites and online marketing (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 56) Developing internal flights from Colombo to Jaffna with new facilities. Vavuniya-jaffna rail track has started constructions. This will be a great source to increase the number of local visitors from South to North. (Ref: http://srilankatoday.com/content/view/4416/52 ) SWOT ANALYSIS STRENGTHS Cost of doing business in Sri Lanka has reduced due to decreases in freight rates, insurance and other financial issues. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html ) Political stability is growing especially in North and East regions. Therefore it will be more advantages doing business in Sri Lanka. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft335.html ) Stock market has rosed over 96% in 2009 just after the war. And it will keep climbing because of the new opportunities for business. Such as tourism and hospitality industry. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-investment-radar.html ) The entire North and east provinces will join in to the tourism industry with their values, destinations, and beauty. Addition of Trincomalee port to Sri Lankan shipping network will boost huge business visitors and employment opportunities. Worlds finest beaches for surfing, whale spotting, water sports, coastal fishing and coral reefs are now with the Sri Lanka. Earlier half of these beaches were not in a position to offer tourists. but now Sri Lanka has a treasure which many countries does not have. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 12) 4 year strategic plan for tourism from 2009-20012 which has developed 10 strategies and 8 objectives to provide a better service for tourists and tourism industry. Strategic Targets: To build a more diverse product range. To make Sri Lanka more accessible. To attract 1.5 million tourist arrivals per annum. To increase yield per tourist from US$ 80 to US$ 130 per day. To create an additional 7,000 rooms by 2016 with the right conditions. To further develop the East and North-West with the development of existing sites and cities. (resorts and new resorts) To help traditional markets grow and open up new markets. To exceed world-class service levels and hospitality. To increase domestic tourism. To help MSME sector grow. Objectives: Short-term programme Take immediate action to increase visitors, manage cost and improve services. Marketing and Communications Help the world to discover Sri Lanka through rebranding, communication and marketing. Services and Hospitality Improve the quality and scope of visitors experiences. Training Development Keep changing the Sri Lankan tourism according to world tourism through professional training. MICE Make Sri Lanka a preferred venue for MICE. Domestic Tourism Improve and expand domestic tourism. Grow the MSME sector. 10 year plan A plan which will place Sri Lanka as a highly desired experiential quality destination. For the buddhist pilgrims both domestic and international, specially there are Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa to worship which were not a safe area at the past due to war. Also Nagadeepa which is famous as a place where Lord Buddha was teaching. For Christian pilgrims there is the Madhu church which is very famous for miracles. Sri Lanka has 14 national parks with fauna and flora which are now available to offer for tourists. Able to offer one of the worlds finest fishing grounds, in the coast of the Jaffna peninsula. This creates more domestic visitors and more employment opportunities. Business travellers can get the perfect work environment with post meeting relaxation including yoga, massage and other treatments. Most of the hotels have these facilities in their separated areas or rooms as a adjustment for the tourist expectations and a way of attract tourists to their hotels again and again. Sri Lanka has More products to offer than the past. Such as more sports activities, leisure activities, expanded destinations, etc. Cruise ships are also welcome to the Sri Lankans new port Trincomalee and Hambantota port. So that tourists who wish travel by sea can visit Sri Lanka while getting experience of sea travelling (sailing) (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 21) Sri Lanka aims to promote old festivals with a new look such as Ramayana trail. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lankan Tourism- page no: 28) WEAKNESSES Lack of Tamil speaking officers to work in Northern Eastern provinces. Lack of Inspection on child sex and prostitution. Still there are undiscovered destinations in the country. Which will attract more tourists to the country. Lack of integration between agencies. Anyone who wishes to invest in tourism in Sri Lanka has to obtain permission from a number of agencies including numerous ministries, local authorities Government agents. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lanka Tourism- page no: 15) Lack of Infrastructure When a traveller has undertaken an exhausting 12 hour flight, they need a future 5-6 hour. Drive along poor quality roads to reach their hotel or destination. And when they reach they may get poor quality rooms. Older Cars, Taxis, mini buses and coaches minimise the standards. OPPORTUNITIES There are new investment opportunities in real estate, healthcare, plantations infrastructure sector as core-sectors in tourism industry. (Ref: http://www.srilankaequity.com/2009/12/sri-lanka-back-on-invesment-radar.html ) Kuchchaveli Resort will be a grate place to spend leisure time for both local foreign tourists which contains hotels, land water based sports and a theme park. (Ref: http://www.sltda.lk/eastern_region_development ) Passikudah resort is Another new resort which is located by the Passikudah bay it contains 500 rooms in about 150 acres. (Ref: http://www.sltda.lk/passikudah_project ) Small Miracle , is the Sri Lankan new tourism brand. This has been tested in all the key markets and has shown good results. (Ref: http://sundaytimes.lk/090628/FinancialTimes/ft328.html ) Sri Lankan government is looking for Middle Eastern to develop the resorts as a preparation for boost in tourism after the war. (Ref:http://www.arabianbusiness.com/554986-sri-lanka-tourism-eyes-mideast-investors ) Opportunities to expand the industry to new markets and to develop the nature, culture and adventure products through new Beaches Beyond strategy. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lanka Tourism) Cruise ships and commercial ships can come in greater numbers to new Trincomalee port beyond Colombo and Hambantota. (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lanka Tourism-page no:21) As the war ended Sri Lanka has headed towards new markets like Israel, Japan, Middle-East and Russia other than their usual markets (Germany, France, India UK) (Ref: National Strategy for Sri Lanka Tourism-page no:22) There will be more opportuniti

Theoretical Overview of Gender Socialization

Theoretical Overview of Gender Socialization What is the meaning and intent behind this rhyme? What types of messages are given with a rhyme to children? How children internalize these messages? What are little boys made of? Frogs and snails and puppy dog tails Thats what little boys are made of. What are little girls made of? Sugar and spice and all thats nice. Thats what little girls are made of. (Marchbank Letherby, 2007). Immediate after the birth, children are surrounded with environmental input from the society in which they grow up, peers and teachers they interact, media, books and parents related to their gender and roles attributed to their gender. Those messages and social cues tell children there are two ways of existing (Marchbank Letherby, 2007). Children are surrounded with environmental in-put about gender from family, peers, and the media. At the same time, they make their own attempts to understand the world and to form categories that help organize it. Gender provides one convenient way for them to accomplish this cognitive organization. In addition, society suffuses the gender distinction with affect, making gender what is perhaps the most salient (Eckes and Trautner, 2000). Gender is seen as a categorical system made up of many levels. Although at the most fundamental level, it is defined by physiology as biological differences between the sexes, on the basis of their sexual anatomy; it usually refers to social, cultural and psychological rules and traits linked to males and females through particular social context. Gender Identity is defined as individuals experience oh himself or herself as masculine or feminine and one of the strongest components of socialization is the development of gender identity. Gender identity, an aspect of self-concept, develops in childhood, learned early and well (Richardson Simpson, 1982). The acquisition and modification of childrens gender roles, attitudes, and social behaviors related to gender, are regulated by many factors, including the values of social class to which they belong, interaction with peers and teachers, exposure to behavior and standards through mass media and especially parents and their parenting styles are the most principle and most influential agents in childrens gender socialization process (Mussen, et al, 1979). In the fallowing part, the influences of parents will be discussed; however, it is needed to look at theoretical overview of gender role development to understand the role of parents in detail. Theoretical Overview of Gender Socialization All theories of gender role development focus on primary socialization and deal with how children learn gender identity, at the time they become aware of two sexes having different gender roles and acting differently. Gender socialization and gender role development are influenced by a variety of significant elements such as biology, social constitutions and social interaction and personality. Different theories bring different point of look and understanding to these each element (Lindsey, 2005). Biological accounts of gender differences have been popular in recent years by focusing on the hormonal and genetic factors. Physical differentiation of two sexes and differentiation of sex organs are determined due to the sex hormones and chromosomes. Here, starting at the conception, it could be said that hormones play a role in sex differentiation between male and female bodies, but it is not at all (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007). Biological theories of sex differences indicate that hormone activity as biological events are viewed as producing psychological and cognitive differences between sexes in terms of being nurturance or aggressiveness. For example, the changes in the mood of women during the menstrual cycle are seen as result of the hormone levels in their blood or the level of testosterone becomes a common explanation used to explain aggressive and hostile behaviors (Burr, 1998). However, there are also studies in literature rejecting the effects of hormones on the differences of behaviors among the females and males. Monozygotic twins sharing 100% of identical genes have been analyzed in terms of the similarities and differences in their behaviors. Mitchell and his colleagues resulted that genes can explain from 20% to 48% of the differences among the behaviors, but environmental factors have a greater role in the range of 52%- 80% of differences (Helgeson, 2005). When the attention is drawn on the studies of testosterone hormone, according to the study of Brannon, both males and males involved in criminal activities and the relationship between aggressiveness and violence can not be solely depending on the testosterone level in men (Brannon, 2005). Similar to the results of Brannon, according to a study conducted with prisoners, college students and psychiatric patients, it is found that there was no positive correlation between hostility and testosterone levels (Burr, 1998). Additionally to these findings, the level of testosterone should not be associated with males, rather in a study; there is a correlation between increased testosterone levels of female students and improved performance on tests for spatial abilities. However, the improvement is not due to the presence of testosterone, rather it is related to relative level of testosterone seen as determinant character of optimal performance (Smith, 2007). When the attention has been turned to the brain studies to explain sex differences in cognition and behaviors of females and males, again paradoxical explanations can be seen in that era. Although, some argue that differential brain lateralization contributes differently to the emotional and cognitive functions of two sexes, the findings are not satisfactory to explain gender role differences (Hetherington Parke, 1993). Different areas of brain have been playing different roles in terms of different cognitive functions. It is believed that right-hemisphere dominated male brain makes men superior in the spatial abilities, while women are good at verbal and language skills because of the lateralization of their brain which is left-hemisphere (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007). However, in a study, damage to the right-hemisphere related to spatial skills influenced both men and women. Hiscock and colleges concluded that the differences among two sexes because of the brain specialization are very small with 1 and 2 % variability (cited in Helgeson, 2005). Besides, it is reviewed that right-hemisphere is more emotional half of the brain. So, if women are left-hemisphere and men left-hemisphere dominated how women are seen as more emotional than men (Lindsey, 2005). When it is generally looked at the literature of brain studies and biological theories, it should be said that the evidences are contradictory and those studies supporting the influences of biology on the gender differences suffer from methodological inadequacies. Therefore depending on the theories of many researches on the issue of gender socialization, it is assumed that biology alone can not be thought as determinant gender roles and gender differences in behavior and cognition. However, those biological theories draw attention of the theorist to explain the reasons of variability in the behaviors of men and women. That is why it is needed to focus on social-situational and cognitive factors while investigating the process of gender role development. To begin with the psychoanalytic theory, Freud in his theory, talked about a series of stages playing role in the development of personality and third stage focused on the development of gender roles (Helgeson, 2005). In the third stage called as phallic, Freud described the role family environment where children engage in the process of identification with mothers feminine virtue of love and nurturance and with fathers masculine strengths of discipline and rules. That means phallic stage is the starting point that boys and girls discover their genitals and they realize that only boys have penises which leads both boys and girls to view girls as inferior. Due of the desire of opposite-sex parent, oedipal complex, boys fear castration, because father figure is seen as source of threat and fear. Boys, at this stage, overcome their castration anxiety, by giving up sexual attraction for their mother and by identifying with their fathers (Eckes and Trautner, 2000). For girls, the resolution of Electra complex with the meaning of being sexually attracted to their fathers is not completely resolved in the same way that the oedipal complex of boys resolved. Freud was not clear explaining girls identification with their mothers. For girls, anxiety occurs because of the penis envy, realization of girls that they do not have a penis and they blame their mothers for anatomic deficiencies. Therefore, girls want to attract their fathers which lead them to handle conflict, Electra complex, by identifying with their mothers and transferring their energies to make themselves attractive towards their fathers (Smith, 2007). Freuds psychoanalytic theory, however, has been criticized on a number of grounds. One of them is that it is not possible to evaluate thoughts and actions by sexual instincts of unconscious mind from a scientific standpoint. That means it is difficult to verify objectively, whether girls suffer from penis envy or boys from castration anxiety. Another criticism comes from feminist theories due to the Freudian thoughts related to penis envy and castration anxiety. Karen Horney, a feminist psychologist, pointed out the importance of social forces as determinant of gender identity rather than biology. Horney, believed that penis envy experienced by girls, does not reflect an actual adoration to have a penis; rather it is envy of power and social status attributed to men (Brannon, 2005). On the other hand, psychoanalytic theory has been criticized by many researchers of not considering any outside influences such as parents, peers or media (Matlin, 1987). Margret Mahlers and Nancy Chodorows Object-relation Theory grew out of Freuds psychoanalytic theory, but it emphasized the importance of early relationship in establishing gender identity. Like Freud although they stressed the importance of sexuality, Mahler and Chodorow believed that rather than unconscious process, family structure and childrens early experiences have an important role in shaping their gender socialization (Helgeson, 2005). Besides Parson mentioned that Freudian psycho-analytic theory is needed to be modified by pointing out on the development of social roles of children. In his model, Parson emphasized that children learn the male and female roles by playing roles of other family members. Girls learn how to be a mother, or boys learn how to be a father by observing what is expected of individuals who enact roles. According to Parson, gender development of children is the result of learning by mastering of prescribed roles (Eckes and Trautner, 2000). Unlike psychoanalytic theory of Freud emphasizing anatomic human drives in the role of socialization, social learning theory should focus on external events controlling childrens behaviors and the theory also posited that defining factors which promote gender socialization come from the social world. It is assumed by behaviorists that appropriate behaviors have been learned directly through reinforcement or indirectly through observation and imitation (Burr, 1998). Depending on operant-conditioning theory, different expectations lead to different reinforcement from parents, teachers or other agents such as television programmes, books, comics including a rich source of symbolic models reinforcing stereo-typical behaviors for females and males. They reinforce children for behaviors which are thought appropriate to their gender and such social pressures serve to condition gender-typed behaviors such as for girls playing with dolls or for boys playing with balls. Children by this way, learn that gender appropriate behaviors which are reinforced with praise and gender inappropriate behaviors which are scolded by punishment (Smith, 2007). On the other hand, Albert Bandura, social learning theorist, explained the process of socialization of children emphasizing the role of observation and imitation. Parents are seen as primary figures who are imitated and viewed as role models by children. Throughout the time they spent with their parents, children first discriminate gender-typed behavior patterns, then they make generalization of what they have learned to new situations and they performed similar to what they acquired from their observations of their parents. As a result, girls become feminine and boys become masculine by imitating similar models, because society rewards them to behave in particular way (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007). However, like psychoanalytic theory, social-learning theory has been criticized in many ways. Depending on the first criticism, a girl can be rewarded for a masculine activity, such as being a basketball player; however they keep a tight hold on other aspects of feminine role. That means rewarding or punishing a behavior does not always lead children to behave in desired way. Besides, social learning theory underestimate the importance of social changes such as increasing number of single or divorce family environments where adults take on a range of non-traditional roles. Lastly, and the most apparent critique towards social learning theory is that its view of children passive recipients of rewards and punishment and it fails to explain children who are quite rigid about constructing their personal version of gender roles (Lindsey, 2005). Unlike social learning theory, cognitive developmental theory views children as primary agent of his or her own gender role socialization by pointing out the importance of cognitive skills as determinants of selecting role models. Building his theory of Piagets work, the most and the first influential cognitive-developmental theory of sex typing were proposed by Kohlberg. According to him, as children have developed intellectually, they become able to understand the world in terms of categories, including gender categories. The starting point of comprehending the world of child is self-realization which is distinguishing each individual from others. To acquire all aspects of self-realization, children develop their gender identity by observing and labeling behaviors of males and females and translating those sex-typed behaviors at the age six where gender constancy is in place. After that time, to develop their self-esteem, same-sex attitudes, occupations and activities are seen as g ood by children (Serbin, et. al., 1993). Kohlbergs cognitive developmental model of sex typing has been influential since it gives importance to childrens active roles in determining gender-based value system. However, like other theories, there are some limitations in cognitive developmental model. It is criticized since there is a problem to understand the sequence in this model whether gender identity or childrens understanding of gender constancy comes first. According to theory, gender constancy should be acquired before children start to develop a gender-based value system fitting their gender role. However, studies stress that there are children who can not acquired gender constancy, become aware of sex-typed behaviors and integrate them in their lives (Lindsey, 2005). On the other hand, the theory fails to explain why sex such dominant category rather than race, religion, or even hair color. Therefore, to understand why children become sex-typed, rather than race or religious typed, and why priority is given to gender schemas, it is needed to look at the Gender Schema Theory (Marchbank and Letherby, 2007). Like Kohlberg, Sandra Bem, mentioned children categorize their social world along gender lines and their desire is to develop an identity which is consistent of social expectation. However, Bem, as mentioned above as shortcoming of cognitive developmental theory is only has valid explanation for the development of gender identity, not other variables such as eye color, race or culture (cited in Serbin, et. al., 1993). Depending on this theory, schemas are cognitive structures used to grasp the knowledge about the world, take perception and process new information. Gender schema includes information related to what being male or female means and what kinds of behaviors, cognitions, attitudes and emotions associated with those gender-related schemas. Children first learn what their gender is and they realize that there are significant differences related to each gender. This knowledge which children acquire by the sex-differentiated social messages, leads them to the information of gen der schema (cited in Smith, 2007). Like Kohlberg and Piaget, Bem agreed with the view of children as being primary agent of his/her own sex-role socialization, however, unlike those theorists, she emphasized the role of society as providing information used by individuals to acquire gender roles (Bem, 1983). Gender schema theory is the combination of the elements of social learning theory and cognitive developmental theory. When it is looked at the philosophy of social learning theory, it talked about how individuals acquire the different characteristics of female and male gender categories and what kinds of characteristics are associated with those categories. On the other hand, cognitive developmental theory also explains how children start to encode new information and how the accommodate this information into the schemas and categories maintain consistency. Besides, as an answer to the question of why sex-typed categories are dominant, Bem believes that gender is more salient and significant and society assigns to the category of gender a broad functional significance (cited in Helgeson, 2005). In short, gender schema theory indicates that every culture includes assumptions about certain characteristics within personalities of individuals. Sandra Bem used the term cultural lenses to define cultures values, beliefs and norms and due to the influences of those cultural norms and forces, without questioning and altering them, children accept to organize their world (Bem, 1983). When it is considered biological, social-learning, cognitive developmental and gender-schema theories, it could be concluded that each theoretical perspective has a number of problems. Although some of them focus on the environmental forces affecting gender identity, some others mentioned the importance of self-cognitive functioning as determinant issue of developing sex-typing behavior, but in fact, none fully explains gender identity acquisition and gender typing. However, generally, all these theories, offer productive avenues to explain gender role socialization. Now, it is needed to move the attention to sociologically based explanations accounting for primary socializing agents who play an important role on attitudes and behaviors of children regarding gender (Lindsey, 2005). Parents Expectation and Childrens Gender Role Socialization Within the aim of this paper, it is expected to find the answers to the questions of do parents provide different socialization for their girls and boys and do they have different expectations from them? Numerous studies on this issue reveal that by modeling traditional roles and encouraging sex-typed activities, parents influence childrens gender role socialization. (Fagot, 1974). Even starting before birth, mothers give sex-appropriate meaning to the activity of fetus. If fetus moves actively by kicking, mothers define this sign as the child will become more likely male than female (Lewis, 1972). Mothers and fathers have different expectations from their sons and daughters leading childrens gender role socialization depending on their values, attitudes and beliefs which are differentiated for girls and boys. To support this differentiation, a study was conducted with 1200 mothers and fathers from different cultural backgrounds to see how children socialize differently in terms of their gender in family environment. The results reveal that parents emphasize on their sons competition, autonomy, achievement and they support sex appropriate behaviors of their sons compared to girls. When parent-daughter relationships have been examined, parents concern warmth and closeness in the relationships with girls (Block, 1973). The study conducted by Pomerantz and Ruble also the relationships between attitudes of parent in use of control on their children and childrens self-evaluation. When it is looked at the outcomes of the research, parents are more controlling with their daughters rather than their sons and they give more autonomy to boys rather than girls. Childrens self-evaluation analysis also indicates that girls outperform boys in school and they have fewer behavioral problems, but on the other hand, they are more vulnerable to anxiety, depression compared to boys. The authors believe that parents differentiation of use of control with girls and boys is influential factor in their socialization (Pomerantz Ruble, 1998). Supporting the claims of Pomerantz and Ruble, Goshen-Gottstein mentioned that supporting dependency of boys rather than girls, mothers believe that boy should be autonomous (cited in Lindsey et.al.,1997). Similar to the findings of those studies and observation mentioned above, depending on the research of Lewis about the interaction between parents and child and expectation of parents, mothers believe that boys should be independent and autonomous than girls and hence they show more proximal behaviors such as touching, holding, or rocking to support their sons to explore their world. On the other hand, mothers look at the eyes of their girls and talk to their daughters more than they do with their sons as part of distal mode of behaviors (Lewis, 1972). Apart from mothers who spent a great deal of their time with both their sons and daughters, when the literature on parenting has been discovered, it is concluded that fathers play primary role in socialization process of their sons especially. A study done by Rothbart and Maccoby parents differential reactions towards their sons and daughters have been analyzed. Fathers have been seen to be potent constructor of the understanding of gender for their children. More likely than mothers, they encourage more traditional gender specific behaviors in their son. They empathize more with them and support independency and autonomy for their sons, rather than girls (Rothbart Maccoby, 1966). Besides, fathers have higher expectations for their sons and they give more emphasis on their sons achievement and occupational attainment rather than the success and carriers of their girls. (Maccoby Jacklin, 1974). As indicated above, due to their different expectations from their sons and daughters, parents reflect their values, beliefs and desires towards their attitudes, communication types and relationships with their children influencing their understanding of the world in a gender-schematic process. Clothes and Arrangement of Childrens Rooms Most parents know the sex of their baby before birth and design childs room accordingly. It is not surprising to see boys rooms are covered with educational and art materials, sport equipments, toy animals and vehicles, while girls rooms consist of dolls, house-keeping toys, and floral furnishings. In a study conducted by Rheingold and Cook, parents furnishing rooms of their sons and daughters has been examined and thought as providing index to their ideas about appropriateness by sex and their different attitudes towards their children. 96 children between the ages of 1 and 71.6 months are the sample of the study. The result of the study reveals that parents design differently the rooms of their daughters and sons with different styles of furnishing and toys. The boys rooms involve more vehicles, and toys supporting motor abilities of children, while girls rooms are full of with domestic equipments and toys of home encouraging nurturance and concern with fashion. According to author s, some of the differences were more apparent and impressive than expected. In girls rooms, there are not vehicle toys such as wagons, boats or buses which can be frequently found in boys rooms. On the other hand, almost total absence of baby dolls and domestic equipments can be observed in boys rooms seen in Table II (Rheingold Cook, 1975). According to authors of this study, the differences in parents furnishing of the rooms of their daughters and sons can be associated in other classes of their behavior towards their girls and boys (Rheingold Cook, 1975). Color-coded and gender-typed clothing of children are widespread and parents choose gender appropriate colors when dressing their children. While they prefer pink, yellows clothing and clothes in pastel tones with embroidered hearts and flowers for their girls, for sons, dark colors such as brown, blue or red clothes with superhero and athletic motives are preferred. According to social learning theory mentioned above, children receive strong messages from their parents related to their gender and by those positive reinforcement associated with their clothing, toys selection and room arrangement, they start to learn what is or not gender appropriate (Lindsey, 2007). Communication and Interaction Differences with Children Differences in the behavior of boys and girls are associated with the differences how parents behave toward them (Rheingold Cook, 1975). Numerous studies indicate that parents play a pivotal role in shaping childrens gender role development by interacting and using different communication types with their sons and daughters. The conversation styles of parents with their children are seen as persuasive socialization mechanisms through which gender roles are conveyed to children (OBrien Shinn, 2008). In a study conducted by Horan and with his colleagues, the aim is to investigate the differences among the communications between mother-daughter, mother-son, father-daughter and father-son dyads. Depending on the collected results of dyads, it is concluded that mothers communicate with their daughters by giving more feminine gender role messages compared to their sons. Similarly, when it is looked at the results of father-son dyads, it can be said that fathers encourage their sons to communicate in masculine styles by sending more masculine messages than they did to their girls. Fathers perceive their sons as being self-reliant, dominant, aggressive, competitive and ambitious than their daughters (Horan et.al, 2007). In another study, fathers have been found to play with their newborn sons and talk them more when compared to their daughters. Besides, when fathers interaction with their girls has been examined, the result shows that they are more gently cuddle to their newborn daughters, while physically rough to their sons (Fagot, 1974). According to the study conducted by Mussen and Rutherford (1963), masculinity of young boys is closely associated with the nature of father-son relationship. That means appropriate sex-role preferences in boys directly correlated with nurturing, affective relationship with their fathers who strongly motivate them towards masculine behaviors. On the other hand, by acting in feminine ways, participating with their daughters in girls game such as housekeeping, mothers become a feminine role model by encouraging their girls to act in the expected ways (Mussen Rutherford, 1963). More recently, a meta-analysis has been conducted about how parents behave towards their sons and daughters. Siegal (1987), concluded that mothers and fathers treat differently and the apparent differences has been found in the era of physical involvement. That means both mothers and fathers participated in physical activities with their boys and they were more strict, and restrictive with them (cited in Helgeson, 2005). Similar to those studies, in another research of OBrien and Shin, they aimed to discover differences in communication styles between mothers and fathers engaged in conversation with a 9-year-old son or daughter. They put two types of communication styles characterized differently for men and women. Assertive communication styles consist of characteristics which are directing attention of others, controlling whole conversation by influencing ideas of others and even interrupting the conversational partner and this style is thought as reflecting mens power and status in the society. On the other hand, affiliative communication which is considered to reflect lack of power of women in society is characterized by concentration on other person through conversation, focusing on others ideas and expecting involvement from partner. The results of the study indicate that fathers use more assertive communication styles and mothers were more affiliative through conversation. In this study, sex o f child has an important role of use of each communication styles. When the powerful status of males and even male children have been considered in society, according to authors, it is not surprising that both mothers and fathers used more affiliative speech with their boys to support their power and dominancy (OBrien Shinn, 2008). Besides those studies, in another study, the frequencies of mothers and fathers parenting behavior with their sons and daughters have been examined. Depending on the results of the study, mothers engage in personal interaction with their daughters rather than their son and similar results of fathers with their sons. According to the authors, traditional gender stereotypes children acquire are the consequences of differential parenting of girls and boys by their mothers and fathers (Moon Hoffman, 2008). Play and Toys Selection In the socio-emotional domain, children develop through the expansion of their social network, from the early relationship with their parents to relationship including other people, especially peers. In this step of the socialization process, play becomes most powerful agent for the formation of peer relationships (Smith, 2007). When the developmental literature has been discovered, consistent findings indicate that children prefer playing with traditionally stereotyped toys for their own sex more than toys stereotyped for the other sex (Martin et.al., 1995). While boys tend to be more active and show higher interest in rough-and-tumble play, girls mostly prefer playing with dolls in the dramatic play (Thorne, 2005). Even starting very early in their lives, children show sex-differences in terms of play and toys selection. Depending on the study of Goldberg and Lewis, 13 month olds, 32 girls and boys behaviors in free play, their interaction with mothers and mothers responses to their infants have been observed. Results indicate that boys and girls reflect striking differences in terms of interaction with mothers, toys and styles of their play. When it is looked at their play styles, girls select toys appropriate for fine motor coordination rather than gross motor abilities. In contrast girls, rather than sitting on the floor, boys are more active by rolling the landowner over toys seen in picture below. Considering maternal behavior of mothers showing differentiation between girls and boys in terms of touching, vocalization and response to their play, author concluded that parents catalyze sex-role appropriate behaviors of children by reinforcing sex-typed activities (Goldberg Lewis, 1969). Parents are the first agent who enact traditionally prescribed sex role